INTRODUCTION:

Indian agricultural practices generate approximately 500 million tonnes of agricultural waste every year. As an easy resort to disposal costs and storage space constraints, farmers have been burning agricultural residue across the country for a long time. However, with rising GHG emissions from vehicular traffic and industries, the added emissions from agro-waste burning is having an alarming effect on air quality in many north Indian cities. Delhi for example, deals with this issue almost every winter, recording an above 1000 mark of AQI in December 2019; 300 being considered the hazardous level for AQI in India. Much of this is accounted by the unapologetic burning of rice and wheat residue in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh. Hardly any farmers, for that matter, know that burning of residual matter on farms is a criminal offence under Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code and under the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act. The National Policy for management of crop residues, published by the Ministry of Agriculture gives clear guidelines on the management and disposal of stubble. Topping it up, the Delhi High Court ruled out an order against stubble burning, while the Punjab Government imposed hefty fines amounting to Rs. 73.2 Lakhs only in 2016. Summing up, the legal solutions of this problem are very well defined and the governments are committed towards solving this monstrous problem, however this practice still continues.

It’s not economically feasible to an average Indian farmer to set up a collection mechanism, arrange for logistics, or for that matter, store the agro-waste on site due to the large productive agricultural space that it takes over. Also, even if a farmer does follow all the guidelines and rules, he does not get any economic benefit out of it, and an already debt-ridden farmer opts out the easy way- burns it. Thus, this project addresses the heart of the issue, i.e., economic benefit to farmers. Agricultural waste mainly contains Cellulose, Hemi-cellulose and Lignin. These materials have wide Pharmaceutical and other second-end commercial product manufacturing most of which are discussed further in the report. The project aimed at developing a low-cost, low-impact, techno feasible procedure of extracting useful cellulose out of agricultural waste. The collected agro wastes in paddy field are shown in fig. 1. The interest in the study of cellulose from plant residues is due to its unique characteristics that depend on the source, purification, treatment, and process conditions [1]. It was also successful in isolating a by-product called lignin which again has many applications as a binding material. Moving ahead, it aims at making the project outcomes relevant to our study location, i.e., Kolhapur district. It has an insight on the cropping patterns, farmer survey outcomes, plans on small scale start-up implementation and basic cost analysis, and the barriers in implementation. It also discusses in brief, the commercial applications of cellulose and lignin and discusses its value in the market.

Fig 1 Agro waste collection in agricultural fields (Rice Straw)

Cellulose:

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n [2]. It is most complex organic polymer on the world. Representing about 1.5 x 10¹² tons annual biomass production [2]. Basically, talking about cellulose, it is a crystalline, non - branched, renewable, natural polymer produced by photosynthesis. The details of Microfibre cellulose structure are presented in the fig 2. This was first invented by French Chemist “Anselm Paven”. It occurs in almost pure form in cotton fibre at around 98%. It is the most important & abundant structural constituent of all -wood plant & it determines strength and stability of cell walls. In paper board and paper cellulose is mainly use content.

Classification of cellulose

Cellulose structures have three main categories on the basis of their dimensions, which are listed below:

1. Cellulose microfibers, are also called microfabricated cellulose (MFC)

2. Cellulose nanofibers, are also called as nano fibrillated cellulose (NFC)

3. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), also called cellulose nano whiskers

Fig 2 Microfibre cellulose structure

Methodology:

Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide & makes up about nearly 30 % of the plants outer cell wall, which serves many functions including:

· Connecting cells to form tissues

· Signalling cells to grow & divide

· Controlling the shape of plant cells

· Allowing cells to withstand the turgor pressure of the fluids inside them [3]. It is the cellulose structure that makes it so useful. The basic study of methodology is described in the fig. 3.

Fig 3 Methodology

Baseline study:

Baseline study was performed using 3 means-

a) Literature review- Study of literature from various technical papers of both, national and international levels along with study of National policy related to Management of Crop Residues provided by Government of India [4].

b) Farmer’s Survey- We visited some nearby farms and did on-ground survey in order to understand the various crops that are harvested in the region.

c) Sample Collection- Further, we shortlisted 2 crops which had high cellulose content namely Rice Straw and Corn Straw.

Formation of a generalized procedure using trial and error method:

After collection of adequate sample, trial and error method was used to find out the general procedure for Extraction of cellulose. Varying quantities of water, chemicals and time periods were tried before finalizing the general procedure ⁵.

Extraction of Cellulose:

By using the general procedure, good quality cellulose was extracted from Crop samples. This low-cost extracted cellulose has various commercial applications and will thus provide an incentive to farmers when implemented as a start-up. During the testing of all 16 trials, the results were varying such as the sample being uncooked, overcooked, dry, sloppy, and sometimes even burnt, thus helping us to find the exact quantities needed [6]. The trails details for corn and rice straw has shown in table 1.

Table 1 Trials for corn Straw and rice straw under different conditions

Trails	Cooking time	NaoH	Water
CORN STRAW
Trial 1	1 hour	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 2	2 hours	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 3	1.5 hour	5%	1.75 Lit
Trial 4	1.5 hour	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 5	1.5 hour	5%	2 Lit
Trial 6	1.5 hour	3.5%	1.25 Lit
Trial 7	1.5 hour	4%	1.25 Lit
Trial 8	1.5 hour	5%	1.25 Lit
Trial 9	1.5 hour	6%	1.25 Lit
RICE STRAW
Trial 1	2 hours	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 2	1.5 hour	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 3	1 hour	5%	1.5 Lit
Trial 4	1 hour	5%	2 Lit
Trial 5	1 hour	5%	1.25 Lit
Trial 6	1 hour	4%	1.25 Lit
Trial 7	1 hour	3%	1.25 Lit

Generalized procedure:

Step 1: Wash the collected sample thoroughly using clean water. Remove all dust, dirt and unwanted debris and sun-dry it. Weight this sample using weighing machine having 0.00-gram accuracy, say 250 g.

Step 2: Now cut it into small pieces for easy cooking. Make sure to take precautions while cutting.

Step 3: Put this chopped sample in a Pressure cooker. It is easier to process it in a pressure cooker because in this way, pressure and heat both helps the sample to cook easily and effectively. Add 1.25 lit water to it and 4% caustic soda (NaOH) that is 10gm. Mix it well. Make sure that cooker isn’t filled to its rim so that when pressure starts to build-in, there will be space for it. It was understood from the trials that the water and NaOH required for processing was of same quantity for both samples.

Step 4: Now provide required heat and pressure to it for 1.5 hours for Corn Straw and 1 hour for Rice Straw. Since Corn straw is thicker than rice straw, the time necessary for its cooking is also higher. The hydro-thermal reaction along with pressure breaks down the fibres turning the sample into a mesh. Once the time is up, let it cool before opening the cooker. Take precaution while opening it otherwise steam might cause burns.

Step 5: Using running water, wash the cooked mesh by hands by means of a clean cloth as a strainer. Make sure to wear gloves while doing this or contact with NaOH may cause irritation. Do not dispose the wash-water directly in the drains as it contains lignin in high concentration. This lignin is removed in further steps.

Step 6: The filtrate contains impure cellulose which still contains some amounts of lignin and hemi-cellulose. To obtain pure cellulose, repeat steps 3-5 four more times. Keep collecting the wash-water in each cycle. Add 1 lit water and 10g NaOH in each cycle.

Step 7: At the end of 5th cycle, after washing the mesh, pure cellulose is obtained. Although, it has pale yellow colour. It is the result of reaction of sample with NaOH. By adding 6% H2O2, that is 15g in dilute form, this yellow cellulose is bleached, giving it an off-white end colour.

Step 8: The final product is sun-dried and thus low-cost, techno-feasible cellulose is obtained.

The systematic generalized procedure is shown in fig 4.

Fig 4 Generalized Procedure

Removal of lignin:

Lignin is a sticky material present in plant cell walls which holds cellulose and hemicelluloses, as main parts of lingo-cellulose matrix, together. This lignin gets removed from our agro-samples in each sample when it is treated with heat and pressure and gets accumulated in the wash water making it hazardous[7]. In order to remove this lignin and make our project eco-friendly, we went through several nation and international papers to study its form and various methods of lignin removal. Finally, we decided to opt a very easy and feasible method for separation of lignin from wash water which is Distillation⁸.

The results after taking trials before the lockdown due to COVID-19 using distillation process were quite satisfactory. If 100 ml of sample is distilled, around 98 ml comes out as clear liquid with the residue in the form of lignin flakes. These lignin flakes may be used as such or may be dewatered, as by filtration and further drying it since lignin holds high commercial value.

Various applications of lignin such as Lignin Derivatives, Phenolics, Carbon Fibre, Lignin as Binder, Lignin as Dispersant, Lignin in Battery, Lignin as Food Additives, Lignin in Cement, Lignin Blends, Lignin as Sequestering Agents[9-10].

Cost analysis

We did cost analysis based on materials used for this project and also present rates for these materials. This cost analysis is for only to check how much an entrepreneur will get after installing such project. In this cost analysis we considered farmer incentives as 1200 Rs for one tractor of rice straw and 1000 Rs for one tractor of corn straw[11]. Taking 50 km distance as a average distance from farm to transfer station by means of tractor. We also assume to nearly 8 litres diesel is required for transporting the stubble.

To understand the formula of profit. We calculate the total difference between investment for 1 kg of cellulose and commercial cost of that cellulose per kg. One kg of rice straw gives 624 grams cellulose. Therefore, its commercial cost is Rs. 53.04/kg of rice straw. Similarly, 1 kg of corn straw gives 696 grams cellulose. Hence, its commercial cost is Rs. 59.16/kg of corn straw. The investment details are presented in table 2

Profit =

Commercial cost of cellulose/kg - Investment done/kg

Table 2. The Investment details for Rice and Corn straw

Sr No	Investment	Price for Rice Straw (Rs. /kg)	Price for Corn Straw (Rs. /kg)
1	Incentive to farmers	1.15	1.66
2	Transportation cost	0.558	0.558
3	Electricity charges	24	36
4	NaOH	7.80	7.80
5	H₂O₂	3.84	3.84
6	Total investment	37.348	49.858
7	Profit	15.692	9.302

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:

According to analysis the results that were obtained after following the previously mentioned procedure in laboratory for extraction of cellulose from Rice straw and Corn straw were satisfactory. It was understood from the observations that both preferred crops gave a hefty amount of good quality and low-cost cellulose. Although, the size of vessel used for heating procedure was not large enough to hold 1 kilogram of sample. The sample was dry and hence extremely light in weight also taking large space. Hence, we had to do it in fractions of four that is in batches of 250 grams four times. This made testing lengthier since the procedure had to be repeated 5 times for each batch. Therefore, to extract cellulose from 1 kg sample, the total procedure had to be followed 20 times altogether. Nevertheless, the results were very good, as good as yielding more than 60% cellulose. From 250 g of Corn Straw sample the weight of cellulose that was obtained was 170 g. Similarly, for 250 g of Rice Straw, it was 158 g.

In the same manner, after completing the whole set for 1 kg sample of Corn Straw, the final weight of cellulose was 696 g which sums to 69.6%. Furthermore, for Rice Straw, 1 kg of sample gave a cellulose yield of 642g which is 64.2%. The details are shown in fig 5.

Fig 5 Details of Cellulose extraction

Interpretation of result:

Corn straw and rice straw gave yields of 69.6% and 64.2% cellulose, respectively, making them potential crops to obtain good quality cellulose. Other crops such as wheat or sugarcane are usually used for other means such as bagasse or food for livestock. Corn straws, on the other hand, are burnt even though having lots of good quality cellulose filled inside its thick straw. The yield being more than 60% promises a commercial profit. These results make the project liable to be applied on large scale, especially in areas where one of the major reasons behind increase in AQI is crop burning.

Outcomes/benefits of project:

Lesser air pollutants like SPM, SOx, NOx and CO emitted into the atmosphere due to agro-waste being otherwise burnt by farmers. Extremely techno-feasible method of gaining value out of a material resource. (Cellulose) that is rampantly wasted. Circular Economy model of revenue generation out of the Agro-waste for the farmers. Medium income farmers can even setup their own small-scale plants and treat agro-waste coming from their own and neighbouring farms. No need of storage space to store the Agro-Waste all year long, increased land area usage and hence higher productivity. Emergence of various start-ups/ entrepreneurial models of applications of cellulose extracted out of Agro-Waste. Better regulation and compliance of rules set up by the National green Tribunal and Delhi High Court. Avoiding a crisis situation like Delhi, from happening in big cities of Maharashtra in near future. Scope for incentivizing/subsidizing set up of such start-ups from government that manage agricultural waste.

CONCLUSIONS:

Agricultural waste is an immensely resource that must not be wasted off by burning, instead this project can help in generating revenue out of it. Load of noxious air pollutants on the air is largely reduced. Formation of a generalized low-cost, feasible and eco-friendly procedure for cellulose extraction. Yield of Cellulose from Corn Straw and Rice Straw was found to be very good (Over 60% of the weight) Lot of useful products can be made such as plates, spoons, wrapping paper etc. Making cellulose-based products an amazing alternative to single-use plastic Circular Economy model can be setup throughout the country, giving farmers an economic benefit for the agro-waste generated on their farms. Better policy framework is needed in certain states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, to avoid Delhi-like situations in major cities. Farmers need a shift in thinking about agro-waste as a resource, rather than a liability. Government subsidies to set up agro-waste treatment plants can go a long way in solving this issue.

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Received on 08.05.2022 Accepted on 28.06.2022

Int. J. Tech. 2022; 12(1):9-15.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-3915.2022.00002